The third part of Christina Vazou's article.
The Spanish-American War
The Spanish-American War began in April 1898 and ended on August 13, 1898. Relations between the two states were strained over Cuba, an island located approximately 144 km from Florida, USA. Cuba was a colony of Spain and several attempts had been made on the part of the island to become independent from the colonial power. Another rebellion in 1895 led the Spanish to send General Weyler, who was also known as "The Butcher", to put down the rebellion.
As expected, Weyler's tactics were extremely harsh. The army killed animals that the civilians had for food and burned the fields in an attempt to starve the rebels into surrender. He swept across the country in an effort to contain the revolutions and turned several cities in Cuba into buffer zones, a tactic similar to that used in the Vietnam War called Strategic Plan Hamlet. The purpose was to limit the local population so that they could not communicate with the revolutionaries.
All this resulted in the death of thousands of Cubans. Thus, hatred towards Spain increased and in addition a wave of anger was caused in neighboring America. An important cause for the start of the war between Spain and America was the belief created in the American people that terrible crimes were being committed in Cuba. For this reason there were many Americans who volunteered to fight. Citizens in the US were informed daily of what was happening in Cuba from the newspapers. All this information caused the wrath of the people. In November 1896, William McKinley was elected President of the United States with a key part of his election campaign being the promise that he would liberate the people of Cuba.
Negotiations began between Spain and America with the aim of improving the conditions on the island. Unfortunately, however, they stopped when a letter was sent from the Spanish ambassador in which he did not express himself with due respect to President McKinley. This letter was published in the newspaper "New Y Journal” in February 1898. In the same month a serious incident occurred which was also the reason for the outbreak of war.
The Americans had sent a warship, the USS Maine, to protect US interests in Cuba. On February 15 there was an explosion on the ship in the port of Havana and 260 American sailors died. The cause of the explosion was never determined, but the newspapers of the time blamed Spain and called for war, which was widely accepted by the American people and politicians.
A key role in this war was played by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt who had already begun preparations for a possible war with Spain. He placed Admiral George Dewey in charge of the Fleet in the Pacific Ocean with orders to block or attack the Spanish fleet in the Philippines should war break out with Spain.
On April 25, 1898, the official declaration of war was made between Spain and the USA. Within days, Admiral George Dewey managed to sink all the ships of the Spanish navy, winning the Battle of Manila Bay.. General William Rufus Shafter led a force of 17.000 soldiers including volunteers. Up to that time, this was the largest US military mission on foreign soil.
On May 7, 1898, the USS McCulloch, an American expedition ship, arrived in Hong Kong from Manila with news of Dewey's Victory. Aguinaldo had just returned to Hong Kong from Singapore and was waiting for the Americans to take him to Manila. Aguinaldo reached Manila Bay on May 19. Several rebels, as well as Filipino soldiers serving in the Spanish army, sided with Aguinaldo.
After a brief meeting with Dewey, Aguinaldo continued his revolutionary actions against the Spanish. On May 24 he issued a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine military forces and announced his intention to establish a dictatorial government of which he would be the dictator in order to prepare the ground for a democratically elected President.
In the Battle of Alapan fought on May 28, 1898, Aguinaldo managed to bring down the last stronghold of the Spanish Empire in Cavite having received reinforcements of about 12.000 men. This was the battle that freed Cavite from Spanish colonial control and the first time the modern Philippine flag was flown in the country.
In June, US military forces invaded Cuba, near Santiago. The fighting began, with the Spanish forces not posing much of a challenge to the Americans. The most important battles were fought on 1η July. The Battle of San Juan Hill, also known as the Battle of San Juan Heights, resulted in a victory for the American forces. A few days later, another major victory for the US occurred when the American fleet destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Caribbean.
In the same month, the island of Luzon which is the largest island in the Philippines, was under the control of the Filipinos. The only places not controlled by the Filipinos were Manila and the port city of Cavite The rebels laid siege to Manila cutting off food and water supplies to the area. With most of the archipelago under his control, Aguinaldo decided it was time to establish the dictatorial government of the Philippines. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence. Lawyer Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista drafted the Philippine Declaration of Independence in Spanish. On June 18, Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government.
Apolinario Mabini, Aguinaldo's closest adviser, did not agree with his decision to establish a dictatorship. Thus, he urged him to set up a revolutionary government. On June 23, Aguinaldo issued a second decree, this time replacing the dictatorial government with a revolutionary government in which he appointed himself as president.
On July 17, unaware that the American forces were suffering from fever, the Spanish in Santiago surrendered. This surrender marked the end of Spanish views on their stay in Cuba. The defeat of the Spanish in Puerto Rico also contributed to this. In the Philippines, Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were able to begin negotiations with Acting Governor-General Fermín Jáudenes. The two sides made a secret agreement to stage a virtual battle in which the Spanish forces would be defeated by the American forces. But they would not allow the Filipino forces to enter Manila. This plan minimized the risk of unnecessary casualties on all sides, while the Spanish would also avoid the embarrassment of having to surrender to Filipino forces.
On the evening of August 12, the Americans warned Aguinaldo not to allow the rebels under his command to enter Manila without the permission of the Americans. On August 13, US forces attacked and captured the Spanish positions in Manila. Although they had planned to conduct a mock battle that would lead to the quick surrender of the Spanish, the rebels also attacked without warning. This attack led to skirmishes with the Spanish, in which some American soldiers were killed and wounded. The Spanish formally surrendered Manila to US forces. Aguinaldo demanded joint governance of the city with the US, but the latter pressured Aguinaldo to withdraw his forces from Manila. This battle marked the end of Filipino cooperation with the Americans, as the American action of barring Filipino forces from entering the occupied city of Manila angered the Filipinos.
At the end of the year, a peace treaty was signed between the USA and Spain that also marked the end of the Spanish-American War, also known as the Treaty of Paris. With it, the defeat of Spain was formalized and the USA acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, Cuba became an independent state – a satellite of the USA and the purchase of the Philippines from the USA for 20 million dollars took place.
War Between the Philippines and America
On December 21, 1898, President William McKinley, referring to the Treaty of Paris, declared that "as a result of the victory of American arms, the future control and government of the Philippine Islands is ceded to the United States." He directed the military commander, General Otis, to notify the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands that the influence of the United States "must be exercised for the safety of themselves and the property of the inhabitants of the islands, and for the preservation of their private rights and personal relations." .
The announcement of the new situation that would prevail in the Philippines did not find agreement with Aguinaldo. The President of the Philippines drafted two proclamations protesting this US intention and giving his supporters the go-ahead to engage US troops should they attempt to occupy Philippine territory. THE Otis took the proclamations as a declaration of war. Thus, he strengthened American observation posts and put his troops on the alert. On the other hand, Aguinaldo's proclamations instilled in the masses a determination to fight what they once considered an ally and now became an enemy.
On January 8, 1899, the New York Times reported that two Americans guarding a floating vessel in Iloilo City were attacked. One soldier died. The article also said the rebels were threatening to destroy businesses in the city using fire. At the same time and after elections were held on June 23, 1898 until September 10, a legislative body known as the Congress of Malolo was created in the Philippines. On January 21, 1899, the Malolo Constitution was adopted, which also proclaimed the First Republic of the Philippines with Emilio Aguinaldo as President.
On the evening of February 4, Private William W. Grayson fired the first shots of the war in the city of Santa Mesa. These shots killed a Filipino lieutenant and a Filipino soldier. Later that day, Aguinaldo declared, “End peace and friendly relations with the Americans. To treat the latter as enemies, within the limits set by the laws of war".
The outbreak of violence was the cause for the Battle of Manila which began on February 4-5, 1899. This was the first and largest armed battle of the war between the Philippines and America. After the Spanish surrendered Manila to the Americans, General Aguinaldo demanded a series of outposts in the Zapote Line, which was the Spanish defensive perimeter. General Otis initially refused this request, but changed his mind and said he would not object unless he received other orders from his superiors.
It is estimated that at that time there were about 20.000 Filipino soldiers around Manila. American forces are estimated at around 800 officers and 20.000 soldiers. Of these, about 8.000 remained in Manila and 11.000 within the Zapote defensive line. The rest of the American troops were in Cavite City or Iloilo City. On February 5, Filipino General Isidoro Torres crossed the line carrying a flag of truce to deliver a message from Aguinaldo to General Otis that the fighting had started by mistake. Also, Aguinaldo desired an immediate cessation of hostilities and the establishment of a neutral zone between the two opposing forces. THE Otis rejected the letter's content and responded by saying that "since hostilities have begun, they must continue until they reach their grim end."
That same day, General Arthur MacArthur ordered his troops to advance against the Filipino troops, starting a full-scale armed conflict. On June 2, 1899, the First Republic of the Philippines officially declared war on the United States, with an announcement to the Philippine National Assembly.
For most of 1899, the revolutionary government of the Philippines resorted to guerilla warfare only as a last resort. On November 13, 1899, Emilio Aguinaldo decided that guerrilla warfare would henceforth be their main strategic option. This development made the American occupation of the Philippine archipelago even more difficult in the following years. In the first four months since guerrilla warfare tactics were adopted, the Americans suffered nearly 500 casualties. The Philippine Army began to organize bloody ambushes and raids, such as the victories of the rebels in the areas of Paye, Catubig, Makahambus, Pulang Lupa, Balangiga and Mabitac.
At first glance, it seemed that the Filipinos would succeed in fighting the Americans and driving them to a stalemate with the ultimate goal of withdrawing their forces. Indeed, President McKinley considered withdrawing troops as soon as the insurgents began their raids. On December 20, 1900, General Arthur MacArthur Jr., who on May 5 had succeeded Elwell Otis as US Military Governor, placed the Philippines under martial law, invoking US Army General Order 100.
He made it clear that they would no longer tolerate violent insurgent attacks and outlined the rights that every American soldier could exercise in dealing with insurgents and civilians. More specifically, the insurgents who did not wear uniforms but civilian clothes and changed their clothes at will would be held accountable. Secret committees that collected taxes to support the revolution and those who accepted US protection in occupied cities while aiding the rebels would be treated as rebels or war traitors. Filipino leaders who continued to work for Philippine independence were deported to Guam.
The Philippine Army continued to suffer defeats against the vastly better armed United States Army, at least when engaged in conventional warfare, forcing Aguinaldo to constantly shift his base of operations. On March 23, 1901, General Frederick Funston and his troops managed to capture Aguinaldo with the help of some Filipinos who had allied with the Americans. The Americans posed as the captives of this group of Filipinos, who were dressed in Philippine Army uniforms. As soon as Funston and the "captives" entered Aguinaldo's camp they immediately fell upon the guards and quickly overpowered their opponents.
On April 1, 1901, at the Malacañan Palace in Manila, Aguinaldo took an oath to accept the authority of the United States in the Philippines and show allegiance to the American government. On April 19, he signed a Declaration of Formal Surrender to the United States and ordered his followers to lay down their arms and abandon the struggle. Aguinaldo's capture dealt a serious blow to the Filipino struggle, but not as great as the Americans had hoped. General Miguel Malvar assumed leadership of the Philippine government.
At first he took a defensive stance against the American army, but soon launched a major offensive against American-held towns in the Batangas region. General Vicente Lukbán in the Samar region, and other Philippine army officers, continued the war in these regions. The general Bell relentlessly pursued Malvar and his men, forcing many Filipino soldiers to surrender. Finally, Malvar surrendered, along with his sick wife and children and some of his officers, on April 16, 1902. By the end of the month nearly 3.000 of Malvar's men had surrendered.
On July 2, the United States Secretary of War announced that since the rebellion against the United States had ended and provincial governments had been established in most of the Philippine archipelago under US leadership, the office of military governor was no longer valid . On July 4, Theodore Roosevelt, who had been appointed President of the United States after the assassination of President McKinley on September 5, 1901, granted amnesty to all those who had participated in the conflict between the United States and the Philippines.
Casualties during the war were much greater for the Filipinos than for the Americans. The United States Department of State announced that the war "resulted in the deaths of over 4.200 Americans and over 20.000 Filipino combatants" and that "as many as 200.000 Filipino civilians died from fighting, starvation, and disease." On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo declared that the Philippine-American War had officially ended on April 16, 1902 with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar.
