The discovery of a fragmentary papyrus containing significant sections (ninety-seven lines of Greek) from two plays by Euripides has caused a stir in the world of Classical studies. Previously unknown, the texts come from Euripides' Ino, a story of jealousy, revenge, murder and suicide, and Polydeus, a play of miraculous resurrection and celebration.
This is the most significant discovery of a “new” tragedy in almost sixty years. The papyrus was excavated by a team from the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities in the ancient necropolis of Philadelphia, south of Cairo, on November 19, 2022 and has just been published (in late August 2024) and classified as P. Phil. Nec. 23.
Professor Bill Allan (School of Classics) wrote about the new texts in the Times Literary Supplement (6 September 2024).
The Mythological Ino
Ino is one of the most tragic and multidimensional figures in Greek mythology. Her story begins as a mortal princess and ends with her transformation into a sea deity.
Origin and Family
Parents: She was the daughter of Cadmus, founder of Thebes, and Harmonia.
Sisters: Her sisters were Semele (mother of Dionysus), Agave and Autonoe.
Spouse & Children: She married the king of Orchomenus, Athamas, and had two sons, Learchus and Melicertes.
The Main Myths
The mythology of Inos is divided into three main axes:
- The Conflict with Nephele (Phrixos and Elli):
As Athamas' second wife, Ino hated his children from his first marriage to the goddess Nephele. To destroy them, she convinced the women of the country to roast the wheat seeds, causing a wheat famine. She then bribed the messengers at the Oracle of Delphi to say that the famine would only end if Phrixus was sacrificed. The children were saved at the last moment by the Golden Fleece Ram. - The Raising of Dionysus and the Wrath of Hera:
After the death of her sister, Semele, Ino took on the responsibility of raising her nephew, the god Dionysus. Hera, enraged by Zeus's protection of her illegitimate son, punished Ino and Athamas with madness. In his rage, Athamas killed their son Learchus. - The Metamorphosis into Lefkothea:
Pursued by her insane husband, Ino fell into the sea from a rock (usually on the Isthmus of Corinth) holding the little Melicertes in her arms. The gods took pity on them and transformed them:- Ino became the sea goddess Lefkothea.
- Melikertes became the god Palaemon.
The Goddess Leucothea in the Odyssey
As Lefkothea, she is considered the protector of sailors. Her best-known role in poetry is in the Odyssey, where she appears to Odysseus during a violent storm. She gives him a magical handkerchief (kridemnon), which protects him from the waves and helps him reach the island of the Phaeacians safely.
Myths: Hyginus – Ino
Translated from English by Dimitris Symeonidis JP
- 2 2 INO: Ino, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, desiring to kill Phrixus and Helle, the children of Nephele, devised a plan with the women of the whole race and conspired to roast all the seeds in the fire to make them barren so that, when sterility and scarcity of grain would arise, the whole state would perish, some from famine, others from disease. Concerning this situation, Athamas sent a servant to Delphi, but Ino instructed him to bring back a false answer that the plague would end if he sacrificed Phrixus to Zeus. When Athamas refused to do this, Phrixus voluntarily and willingly promised that he alone would free the state from its misery. Accordingly, he was led to the altar, wearing the sacred (sacrificial) ribbons, but the servant, out of pity for the young man, revealed Ino's plans to Athamas. The king, having learned of the crime, delivered his wife and her son Melicertes to be put to death, but Dionysus cast a mist around her and saved Ino, his nurse. Later, Athamas, driven mad by Zeus, killed his son Learchus. But Ino, together with Melicertes' son, fell into the sea. Dionysus wanted to name her Leucothea, and Melicertes, her son, the god Palaemon, but we call her Mother Matuta and him Portolanus. In his honor, every fifth year, gymnastic games are held, which are called Isthmian.
English text from Latin
- 2 2 INO: Into, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, wishing to kill Prix's and Heller, Nebula's children, formed a plan with the women of the entire tribe, and conspired to parch the seed grain to make it unfertile, so that, when the sterility and scarcity of grain resulted, the whole state should perish, some by starvation, others by sickness. With regard to this situation Athames' sent a servant to Delphi, but Iino instructed him to bring back a false reply that the pestilence would end if he sacrificed Prius to Jove. When Athame's refused to do this, Prix's voluntarily and readily promised that he alone would free the state from its distress. Accordingly he was led to the altar, wearing fillets (of sacrifice), but the servant, out of pity for the youth, revealed Imo's plans to athames'. The king, thus informed of the crime, gave over his wife and her son Melicertes to be put to death, but Father Liber cast mist around her, and saved Ino his nurse. Later, Athamas, driven mad by Jove, slew his son Learchus. But Ino, with Melicertes her son, threw herself into the sea. Liber would have her called Leucothea, and Melicertes, her son the god Palaemon, but we call her Mater Matuta, and him Portunus. In his honor every fifth year gymnastic contests are held, which are called Isthmian
Euripides' Inos
Ino is a fragmentary surviving tragedy by Euripides, which was considered lost for centuries, until the recent discovery of important verses on an Egyptian papyrus (2024).
The plot of the play, as reconstructed from excerpts and ancient sources (such as Hyginus), focuses on revenge and family destruction:
The Return: Ino, first wife of King Athamas, returns to the palace after a long absence (during which she was considered dead or in a Dionysian ecstasy).
The Conflict: During her absence, Athamas has married Themisto, with whom he has had children. Ino returns disguised as a slave and discovers that Themisto is planning to murder her own children (from her first marriage).
The Trap: Themisto orders the disguised Ino to dress Ino's children in black clothes (so she can identify and kill them at night) and her own in white. However, Ino reverses the clothes.
The Tragic Ending: Themisto accidentally kills her own children. As soon as she realizes it, she commits suicide.
The Final Destruction: The tragedy concludes with further bloodshed, as Athamas is seized with rage and kills his son, Learchus, while Ino falls into the sea with her other son, Melicertes, where they are transformed into sea deities.
The play is described as a "revenge tragedy" and the new findings include a scene where Ino triumphs over the defeated Themisto.
Euripides (c. 485/480 – 406 BC)
He was one of the three great tragic poets of ancient Athens, along with Sophocles and Aeschylus, born in Salamis, originally from Phlia, who lived during the Peloponnesian War. He wrote about 90 plays, but only 19 survive intact, such as "Alcestis", "Medea" and "Iphigenia", with important innovations that profoundly influenced the theater.
Basic elements:
Birth: Around 485 BC in Salamis.
Origin: From Attica, Phlia.
Era: He lived during the period of the Median Wars and the Peloponnesian War.
Significance: He renewed tragedy by introducing realistic characters, psychological depth, and social themes, as well as the role of women, making his work more accessible and critical of society.
Death: Died in Pella, Macedonia in 406 BC.
Project Features:
Realism: Unlike his predecessors, he focused on human desires and weaknesses, often using the deus ex machina (god from the machine) at the end of his works.
Women as Protagonists: He created strong and complex female characters (e.g. Medea, Antigone), something groundbreaking for the time.
Innovations: He introduced the "machine god", focused on the psychology of the heroes and presented the myths in a more human and realistic way.
Literary Production: He wrote approximately 92 plays, but only won five first-place victories in dramatic competitions (one of which was posthumous).
Surviving Works: Today, 19 tragedies (including the satirical drama Cyclops) survive intact, among which the most famous are Medea, Hecuba, Iphigenia in Aulis and The Bacchae.
Euripides is considered the "most tragic" of the three greats, as he brought tragedy closer to the human experience.
P.Phil.Nec:23 : Text and Translation
Col. 1
̣ ̣ ἔ]pleasing to the mother's body; I swear to God
] You are a victim, you are our friends.
⸐]
old laws of Vorot
They will not be happy with a double-digit number.
⸐]
5 and] not silence in the midst of the multitude;
Every time, as a family, you do good.
⸐]
The fourth appeared another demon.
I am going to go.
He is acting illegally.
⸐]
10] For the testimony of the invisible shines forth.
⸐]
Everything happens for a reason, but it is bad.
I want to do something else or something good.
⸐]
̣ ̣ ̣] For whatever is alive is evil.
Is this true? I don't even have a clue.
15] himself in his own tomb, eternally united. (~adesp. fr. 279g.10)
⸏]
3
What is the matter?
now people are like that
Are you brave enough to fight?
⸐]
[fēῦ] [fẹ̄ῦ] to win the battle like a good old man, Fr. 1034.1-3
20 The most just things are for everyone.
and] the tongue is a blasphemy and envy is not to be envied.
⟨ .
⸐]
[ὀ] ἀνύν έλκετ' ὦ κακοὶ τ[ιµ]ὰ[ϲ] ἀνος fr. 419.1-4
and throughout life, hunted everywhere, .
Mixed is not fair and fair is not equal.
25 Then we will see the two most important things in the summer. .
⸐] .
5 and] Diggle, not] ed. pr. 6 both] Battezzato, and] ed. pr. 10 to] Battezzato 11 all] Diggle ap.
- ed. pr. 13 ̣ ̣ ̣] ̣ ο̣ϲ pap., αὐδ]ᾷϲ Baptized 14 ἄκλ]α̣υτoν Baptized, ]ουτον ed. pr. ; µηδὲ ϲῆµ᾽ ἔ[α
λ]α̣[β]ε̣ῖν Battezzato, µηδ᾽ ἐϲ ηµε ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ε̣ιν ed. pr. 15 αἰ̣ϲ̣χ̣ύ̣ν̣η̣ν̣ ed pr. in comm. 23 βίοτον pap., π⟨λ⟩ο⟨υ⟩τον
- ed. pr.
] I saw and [ ] I felt pain.
]̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣
] ̣ ̣ ̣aϲ ἐ̣xáironta ἐ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣[̣ c . 7 ]ạ
] ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣θ' ϲφαιμου ϲφαλεῖρῖ[ ̣]̣ ̣[̣ c.8 ] ̣ω
⸐]
30 and] not to come to the benefit [ἐ]ϲ food [passion]
]heroes come and the gods are called
]neiϲ akranta paue ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣ ̣
] small and large, pain-free
Oh, my child
⸐]
35 Brotos, why do you labor without knowing anything about it?
[O] your soul is born,
It is not something that is unfortunate, when it happens.
30 ὤφελ᾽ [ἐ]ϲ Ϭοϲ [πάθοϲ] Battezzato, ὤφελ[ε]ϲ Ϭοϲ ed. pr. 33 ] μ̣ικρ pap., ] ̣ικρ᾽ ed. pr., μικρ᾽ leg. non pot.
- pr. 34 ὦ νή]π̣ιοι µὲν, ν̣ηπίου δ᾽ ἀφ᾽ αἵµατ̣ο̣ϲ Finglass, ] ̣ ̣οιµεν ν̣ηπίου δ᾽ αρ̣ ̣ ̣ µάτ̣α̣ϲ ed. pr. 35 vrοτο]ί
vel θνητο]ί Battezzato 36 οὔθ᾽] ὅ̣ϲ̣τ̣ιϲ Diggle ap. ed. pr. 37 οὐτ᾽ ε]ἴ τ̣ιϲ ἔϲται Diggle ap. ed. pr.
English translation
Col. i
... and I filled a mother with rage. May she enjoy...
sacrifices to the gods, such as none of my family ever has.
(...)
The ancient laws of men
do not approve of bigamous pleasure.
(...)
5 Hear—silence, no more lamenting in the house.
It's fine, it seems, to commit a double crime.
(...)
The daily daimon, going now here now there,
does his nefarious business
under the cover of mist.
(...)
10 Through witnesses the hidden things shine clearly.
(...)
I thoroughly despise you, and anyone who counsels poorly
in haste, rather than properly at his leisure.
(...)
For it is ... when whoever in life has a bad reputation
remains unlamented. Let him not even have a grave marker
15 near his tomb, a shame to his house.
For what is greater?
shame on men...
of reputation … ?
(...)
Oh, what a great gift it is to win just
20 and what an evil altogether to win unjustly,
and a disparaging tongue? and jealousy more ... than not to envy
(...)
Go on, keep making a grab for honor, you evil mortals,
and lay your hands on riches, hunting everywhere,
using illegal and legal means alike—
25 and then reap your miserable harvest.
… later (27) … bloody (29)
30 But when the suffering should have come to light,
… you have arrived, hated by the gods …
… fruitless … stop
… little gain and much pain for me.
(...)
Fools, from a line of fools.
(...)
35 Mortals, why do you toil, knowing nothing further
Neither of you will be rich,
nor if one will be unfortunate, when the time comes.
Performance
Column 1.
...and I filled a mother with rage. May she enjoy...
sacrifices to the gods, such as no one in my family has ever made.
(...)
The ancient laws of humans
they do not approve of bigamous pleasure.
(...)
5 Listen — silence, no more lamentations in the house.
It's good, it seems, to commit a double crime.
(...)
The everyday demon, going here and there,
he does his illegal work
under the cover of fog.
(...)
10 Through witnesses hidden things shine clearly.
(...)
I utterly despise you, and anyone who gives bad advice
hurriedly, rather than properly in his spare time.
(...)
Why is it... when anyone in life has a bad reputation
remains immortal. May he not have even a tombstone
15 near his grave, shame on his house.
Because what is more shameful for people...
of fame … ?
(...)
Oh, what a great gift it is to win fairly
20 and what harm is there in winning unjustly,
and a derogatory language; and jealousy more… than not being jealous
(...)
Go on, go on grabbing the honor, you wicked mortals,
and lay your hands on riches, hunting everywhere,
using illegal and legal means alike—
25 and then reap your miserable harvest.
… later (27) … bloody (29)
30 But when the suffering would have come to light,
… you have arrived, hated by the gods …
... fruitless ... stop
… little gain and a lot of pain for me.
(...)
Fools, from a line of fools.
(...)
35 Mortals, why do you toil, knowing nothing more?
Nor will any of you be rich,
nor whether someone will be unlucky when the time comes.
Sources:
britannica.com/biography/Euripides
topostext.org/work/206- Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation
Hyginus Myths
P.Phil.Nec. Text and Translation
Euripides' Ino: Diploma thesis (M.D.E.) by Dimopoulou Georgia
Figures and Themes of Ancient Greek Mythology of Demeter Mitta
Foundation of Greater Hellenism = Euripides
photo Greek Radio FL
